Boeing 747-400

The Boeing 747-400 is a major development and the best-selling model of the Boeing 747 family of jet airliners. While retaining the four-engine wide-body layout of its predecessors, the 747-400 embodies numerous technological and structural changes to produce a more efficient airframe. Its most distinguishing features versus preceding 747 models are 6-foot (1.8 m) winglets mounted on 6-foot (1.8 m) wing tip extensions, which are found on all 747-400s except for Japanese domestic market versions.

The 747-400 is equipped with a two-crew glass cockpit, which dispenses with the need for a flight engineer, along with more fuel-efficient engines, a horizontal stabilizer fuel tank, and revised fuselage/wing fairings. The aircraft also features an all-new interior with upgraded in-flight entertainment architecture. As on the 747-300, passenger variants include a stretched upper deck as standard. The model has a maximum capacity of 660 passengers with the 747-400D variant, and can fly non-stop for up to 7,670 nautical miles (14,200 km), depending on model.

Northwest Airlines first placed the 747-400 in commercial service in February 1989. The 747-400 was produced in passenger (−400), freighter (−400F), combi (−400C), domestic (−400D), extended range passenger (−400ER) and extended range freighter (−400ERF) versions. The 747-400 is the second-most recent version of the Boeing 747 aircraft family, to be superseded by the more economical and advanced Boeing 747-8. The last −400 model was delivered in December 2009.

Background
Following its introduction in 1970, the Boeing 747 became a major success with airlines and the flying public. As the world's first wide-body jetliner, the 747 had revolutionized air travel, and cemented its manufacturer's dominance in the passenger aircraft market. In 1980, Boeing announced the 747-300, its latest 747 variant featuring greater passenger capacity. This was made possible by making a stretched upper deck (SUD), previously an option on the 747-200, a standard feature. The SUD was almost twice as long as the original 747 upper deck. However, besides increased capacity, the 747-300 did not offer any increase in range, nor did it include improvements in flight deck technology or construction materials. At the same time, 747s were becoming more costly to operate due to a number of factors, notably antiquated flight control systems, three-person flight crews, and fuel costs.

In 1982, Boeing introduced a two-crew glass cockpit, new engines, and advanced materials on its 757 and 767 twinjets. Similar technologies were also included in the design plans for newly-announced rival wide-body aircraft, namely the Airbus A340 and McDonnell Douglas MD-11. At the same time, combined sales of the 747-100, −200, and −300 models (collectively referred to as the 747 "Classics") neared 700, but new orders slowed precipitously. The introduction of the 747-300 did little to stem the decline, and itself faced potential competition from more modern designs. As a result, Boeing began considering a more significant upgrade for its largest passenger jet.

By early 1984, company officials had identified five development objectives for the latest 747 upgrade: new technologies, an enhanced interior, a 1,000 nautical miles (1,900 km) range increase, more efficient engines, and a 10 percent reduction in operating cost. In September 1984, Boeing announced development of the newest 747 derivative, the "Advanced Series 300", at the Farnborough Airshow. On October 22, 1985, the type was officially launched when Northwest Airlines became the first 747-400 customer, with an order for 10 aircraft. Cathay Pacific, KLM, Lufthansa, Singapore Airlines, and British Airways also announced orders several months later, followed by United Airlines, Air France, and Japan Airlines.

Design effort
Seven early customers, namely British Airways, Cathay Pacific, KLM, Lufthansa, Northwest, Qantas, and Singapore Airlines, formed a consultative group to advise Boeing on the 747-400's design process. While the aircraft was planned as a new-technology upgrade, Boeing originally proposed minimal design changes in order to reduce development cost and retain commonality with existing models. However, the airline consultative group pushed for more aggressive changes, most notably in moving to a two-crew glass cockpit. As a result of airline input, the 747-400's new digital cockpit design featured a hybrid of the cathode-ray tube (CRT) display technologies first employed on the 757 and 767, along with carry-over 747 systems such as its autopilot.



The 747-400's wingspan was stretched by 17 feet (5.2 metres) over the Classic 747 through wingtip extensions. For reduced aerodynamic drag, the wings were fitted with 6 feet (1.8 metres)-tall winglets. Despite the added length, the wings were 6,000 pounds (2,700 kg) lighter as a result of new aluminum alloys. The horizontal tail was also redesigned to fit a 3,300 US gallons (12,000 l) fuel tank, resulting in a 350 nautical miles (650 km) range increase, and the rudder travel was increased to 30 degrees. The landing gear was redesigned with larger wheels and carbon brakes. Internal changes further included a restyled cabin with new materials and updated fittings.

New engines offered on the 747-400 included the Pratt & Whitney PW4056, the General Electric CF6-80C2B1F, and the Rolls-Royce RB21-524G/H. The engines offered lower fuel consumption and greater thrust, along with a full-authority digital engine control (FADEC) which adjusted engine performance for improved efficiency compared with the Classic 747s. A new auxiliary power unit (APU) manufactured by Pratt & Whitney Canada was also selected to provide on-ground power for the 747-400, with a 40 percent reduction in fuel consumption compared to previous APU designs.

Production and testing
Final assembly of the first 747-400 began at Boeing's Everett factory, the longtime site of 747 production, in September 1987. More than fifty percent of the aircraft was produced by subcontractors, with major structures, engine nacelles, and sub-assemblies supplied by Northrop, and upper deck fuselage frames from Daewoo. All components were integrated during the final assembly process at the Everett factory. The first aircraft, equipped with PW4056 engines, was completed over the winter months of late 1987. On January 26, 1988, the first 747-400 rolled out at the Everett factory, while the first 737-400 rolled out at Boeing's Renton factory on the same day, marking the first double jetliner rollout in the manufacturer's history. By the time of the rollout, the 747-400 program had amassed more than 100 orders.



The 747-400 flew for the first time on April 29, 1988, under the command of test pilot James Loesch and co-pilot Kenneth Higgins. The first flight was six weeks behind schedule, owing to subcontractor delays in supplying components, and extra troubleshooting on the aircraft's electronics systems. The maiden flight took off from Paine Field, site of the Everett factory, and landed at Boeing Field, south of Seattle, after an uneventful 2 hours and 26 minutes. The 747-400's flight test program utilized the first four aircraft built, one over the minimum number necessary to certify the aircraft's three engine options. One test aircraft each was fitted with the CF6-80C2B1F and RB21-524G/H engines, while the other two featured PW4056 engines, with the fourth aircraft serving as a backup. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) certification was received on January 9, 1989 with Pratt & Whitney PW4000 engines, May 18, 1989 with General Electric CF6-80C2s and June 8, 1989 with Rolls-Royce RB211-524Gs.

As the flight test program proceeded, Boeing encountered problems in the 747-400's production process, leading it to disclose delivery delays of up to one month for the first 20 aircraft built. A primary reason for the delays was the unprecedented complexity of interior configurations offered to airlines, which ranged from lavatory and galley locations to the color shades of cabin warning labels. Coupled with new, relatively inexperienced workers, a lack of veteran technicians, interior configurations needing costly re-work, and teething problems with electronics integration on the advanced flight deck, 747-400 production fell behind schedule. However, the company managed to resolve early production issues by mid-1989, with all three 747-400 engine variants delivered within four months of each other, and overall delays not exceeding several weeks.

Service entry and operations


The first 747-400 was delivered to launch customer Northwest Airlines on January 26, 1989, with service entry on February 9 with a flight from Minneapolis to Phoenix. This was the twentieth anniversary of the 747-100's first flight. On May 31, 1989, Singapore Airlines operated the first international service using a 747-400, on a flight from Singapore to London.

In May 1989, one week before the initial delivery to the 747-400's first European customer, KLM, the Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) shocked Boeing by refusing to grant regulatory certification for the aircraft, citing the upper deck cabin floor's resistance to collapse in the event of a sudden decompression. While the manufacturer asserted that the 747-400's cabin floor was no different than the already-certified and in-service 747-300, the JAA maintained that the newer model would have a service life into 2020 and beyond and was thus subject to a newer, more stringent standard which had been updated to reflect the risk of explosive devices. In the days leading up to the first delivery to KLM, negotiations between Boeing, the FAA, and the JAA resulted in a compromise: a temporary operating certificate would be issued for the 747-400, provided that the manufacturer develop a structural retrofit for the aircraft within two years. The last-minute deal allowed KLM and Lufthansa to take delivery of their 747-400s without further delays.

After the first 747-400 deliveries, Boeing began production on additional variants of the aircraft. The first 747-400 Combi, able to carry both passengers and freight, was rolled out in June 1989. The 747-400 Domestic, a short-range variant of the aircraft designed for Japanese intra-island services, first flew on March 18, 1991 and entered service with Japan Airlines on October 22, 1991. A cargo variant, the 747-400F, was first delivered in May 1993 to Cargolux. By the end of the 1990s, Boeing was producing four versions of the 747-400.

Further developments


The extended range freighter (ERF) entered service in October 2002. The next month, the extended range (ER) passenger version entered service with Qantas, the only airline ever to order the passenger version of the 747-400ER. Qantas uses the aircraft on its Melbourne–Los Angeles and Sydney–Dallas flights, which are too long to operate using a standard 747-400. The 747-400ER featured the Boeing Signature Interior, which was later made available on the 747-400 (either as interior refitting on existing 747-400s or factory installation on new frames). One example, China Airlines's four newest Boeing 747-400s (tail number B-1821x), also the last four passenger 747-400s built, were newly built with Boeing Signature Interior. One of these (B-18210) has a hybrid livery, with China Airlines' tail and Boeing's fuselage liveries.

In the 2000s, as part of an effort to promote sustainable and alternative fuel development, as well as lower emissions, several 747-400 operators studied the use of oil extracted from the jatropha plant. Air New Zealand carried out the first commercial flight using jatropha oil for fuel; the airline's 747-400 had one engine burning a mix of 50% jatropha oil and 50% jet fuel for two hours during the flight while engineers collected data. Continental Airlines tested jatropha oil in one of its airliners on January 7, 2009. Jatropha is easy to grow, needs little fertilizer or water, and produces an oil-rich plant.

Production of the 747-400 passenger version officially ceased on March 15, 2007. The last four −400s on order were cancelled by Philippine Airlines (which switched to the 777-300ER). The last to order the −400 was China Airlines in November 2002, with the last passenger 747-400 constructed in 2005 and delivered in April of that year. It was the 1358th 747 (MSN33737/B-18215).

Design
The 747-400's airframe features extended and lighter wings than previous 747s, capped by winglets. The winglets result in a 3 percent increase in long-range cruise, improved takeoff performance, and higher cruise altitudes. The extended wingspan also gains an additional leading edge flap section. When unfurnished, the basic 747-400 fuselage is lighter than preceding models, but when fitted out it is heavier and stronger than previous models. The landing gear uses the same configuration as previous 747s, but with carbon brakes replacing the previous steel ones, and overall weight savings of 1,800 pounds (820 kg).

The 747-400's glass cockpit features CRT displays which show flight instrumentation along with engine indication and crew alerting system (EICAS) diagnostics. The flight engineer station on previous 747s is no longer installed, and the new displays and simplified layout results in a two-thirds reduction of switches, lights, and gauges versus the Classic 747. Other new systems include an advanced Honeywell flight management computer (FMC) which assists pilots in calculating optimal altitudes and routes along with a Rockwell-Collins central maintenance computer (CMC) which automates troubleshooting tasks.

The redesigned 747-400 interior features new cabin sidewalls, heat-resistant phenolic glass, carbon composite paneling, and larger storage bins. An enhanced in-flight entertainment framework, called the Advanced Cabin Entertainment/Service System (ACESS), debuted on 747-400, which integrates 18-channel audio capability, four passenger intercom announcement zones, inter-cabin telephones, and passenger lighting into a central system. An eight-bunk overhead crew rest is installed above the aft cabin, while a second crew rest area is located on the upper deck behind the cockpit for flight crew use.

747-400


The original variant of the redesigned 747, the 747-400 debuted an increased wingspan, winglets, revised engines, and a glass cockpit which removed the need for a flight engineer. The type also featured a stretched upper deck (SUD) like the 747-300 as a standard feature. The passenger model formed the bulk of 747-400s sold, and 442 were built.

In 1989, a Qantas 747-400 flew non-stop from London to Sydney, a distance of 9,720 nmi (11,190 mi, 18,001 km), in 20 hours and 9 minutes to set a commercial aircraft world distance record. This was a delivery flight with no commercial passengers or freight aboard. During testing, the first 747-400 built also set a world record for the heaviest airliner takeoff on June 27, 1988, on a flight to simulate heavy-weight stalls. The flight had a takeoff weight of 892,450 pounds (404,810 kg), and in order to satisfy Fédération Aéronautique Internationale regulations, the aircraft climbed to a height of 6,562 feet (2,000 m).

747-400F
The 747-400F (Freighter) is an all freight version which uses the fuselage design of the 747-200F. The aircraft's first flight was on May 4, 1993, and it entered service with Cargolux on November 17, 1993. Major customers included Atlas Air, Cargolux, China Airlines, Korean Air, Nippon Cargo Airlines, Polar Air Cargo, and Singapore Airlines. The −400F can be easily distinguished from the passenger −400 by its shorter upper-deck hump.

The 747-400F has a main deck nose door and a mechanized cargo handling system. The nose door swings up so that pallets or containers up to 40 ft (12 m) can be loaded straight in on motor-driven rollers. An optional main deck side cargo door (like the 747-400M (Combi)) allows loading of dimensionally taller cargo modules. Boeing delivered 126 Boeing 747-400F aircraft with no unfilled orders as of November 2009. The last −400F was delivered to Nippon Cargo Airlines.

747-400M
The 747-400M (a passenger/freight or "Combi" variant) first flew on June 30, 1989 and entered service with KLM on September 12, 1989. Based on the successful Combi versions of the Classic 747s, the −400M has a large cargo door fitted to the rear of the fuselage for freight loading to the aft main deck cargo hold. A locked partition separates the cargo area from the forward passenger cabin, and the −400M also features additional fire protection, a strengthened main deck floor, a roller-conveyor system, and passenger-to-cargo conversion equipment. The last 747-400M was delivered to KLM on April 10, 2002.

747-400D


The 747-400D (Domestic) is a high density seating model developed for short-haul domestic Japanese flights. The aircraft is capable of seating a maximum of 568 passengers in a 2-class configuration or 660 passengers in a single-class configuration.

The −400D lacks the wing tip extensions and winglets included on other variants. The benefits of winglets would be minimal on short routes. The −400D may be converted to the long range version when needed. The 747-400D is also unusual in having more windows on both sides of the upper deck than the basic −400 series. This allows for additional seating all the way down the upper deck, where a galley is situated on most international models. In total, 19 of the type were built, and the last was delivered to All Nippon Airways in December 1995.

747-400ER
The 747-400ER (Extended Range) was launched on November 28, 2000 following an order by Qantas for six aircraft. This was ultimately the only order for the passenger version. The −400ER can fly an additional 500 miles (805 km) or carry 15,000 lb (6,800 kg) more freight. Qantas received the first −400ER on October 31, 2002. The 747-400ER included the option of one or two additional 3,240 US gallon body fuel tanks in the forward cargo hold. Manufactured by Marshall Aerospace, these tanks utilized metal to metal honeycomb-bonded technology to achieve a high dry weight-to-fuel volume ratio. Similar technology has been used in the development by Marshall of body fuel tanks for the 777-200LR and P-8A Poseidon.

747-400ERF


The 747-400ERF (747-400ER Freighter) is the freight version of the −400ER, launched on April 30, 2001. The 747-400ERF is similar to the 747-400F, except for increased gross weight capability which allows it to carry more cargo weight. Unlike the 747-400F, the type is not fitted with the cargo compartment fuel tanks. The 747-400ERF has a maximum takeoff weight of 910,000 pounds (412,769 kg) and a maximum payload of 248,600 pounds (112,760 kg). It offers the cargo airline the choice of either adding 22,000 pounds (9,980 kg) more payload than other 747-400 freighters, or adding 525 nautical miles (972 km) to the maximum range.

The type has a maximum range of 5,700 miles (9,200 km), about 326 miles (525 km) farther than other 747-400 freighters, and has a strengthened fuselage, landing gear and parts of its wing, along with new, larger tires. The first −400ERF was delivered to Air France (via ILFC) on October 17, 2002. Boeing has delivered 40 Boeing 747-400ERFs with no outstanding orders as of 2009. The last 747-400 was a −400ERF delivered on December 22, 2009. The new 747-8 Freighter will have more payload capacity but less range than the 747-400ERF.

747-400 Converted Freighter
The 747-400BCF (Boeing Converted Freighter), formerly known as the 747-400SF (Special Freighter), is a conversion program for standard passenger 747-400s. The project was launched in 2004 and will be done by approved contractors such as TAECO, KAL Aerospace and SIA Engineering. The first Boeing 747-400BCF was redelivered to Cathay Pacific Cargo and entered service on December 19, 2005.

The 747-400BDSF (Bedek Special Freighter) is another converted version freighter by Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI). The first 747-400BDSF was redelivered to Air China Cargo.

747 Large Cargo Freighter


Boeing announced in October 2003 that because of the amount of time involved with marine shipping, air transport will be the primary method of transporting parts for the Boeing 787 Dreamliner. Pre-owned passenger 747-400 aircraft have been converted into an outsize, "Large Cargo Freighter" (LCF) configuration to ferry sub-assemblies to Everett, Washington for final assembly. The LCF has a bulging fuselage similar to that of the Super Guppy or Airbus Beluga cargo planes used for transporting wings and fuselage sections.

The conversion, designed by Boeing engineers from Puget Sound, Moscow and Canoga Park, Cal., and Gamesa Aeronáutica in Spain, is carried out in Taiwan by a subsidiary of the Evergreen Group. Boeing has purchased four second-hand aircraft and had them all converted; the fourth and final LCF took its first flight in January 2010.

Delivery times will be reduced from up to 30 days to as low as a day with the 747 LCF. The LCF can hold three times the volume of a 747-400F freighter. The LCF is not a Boeing production model and will not be sold to any customers or see any airliner operation. The LCFs are for Boeing's exclusive use.

Government, military and other variants

 * C-33: Proposed U.S. military transport version of the 747-400, intended to augment the C-17 fleet. The C-33 cost less and had greater range, although it could not use austere runways or handle outsize military equipment and had a higher expected operating cost. The plan was canceled in favor of the purchase of additional C-17s.


 * YAL-1]]: "Airborne Laser" carrier based on a 747-400F for the United States Air Force. The aircraft has been heavily modified to carry a nose mounted turret and Chemical Oxygen Iodine Laser (COIL) equipment.

Commercial airlines
As of January 2012, Boeing 747-400s were in service with the commercial operators listed below:


 * Argentina: Aerolíneas Argentinas
 * Bolivia: AeroSur
 * Iceland: Air Atlanta Icelandic
 * Russia: AirBridge Cargo
 * Germany: Air Cargo Germany
 * China: Air China
 * France: Air France
 * Hong Kong: Air Hong Kong/DHL
 * India: Air India
 * New Zealand: Air New Zealand
 * Fiji: Air Pacific
 * Saudi Arabia: Al Wafeer Air
 * Japan: All Nippon Airways
 * South Korea: Asiana Airlines
 * United States: Atlas Air
 * United Kingdom: British Airways (largest operator)
 * Luxembourg: Cargolux
 * Italy: Cargolux Italia
 * Hong Kong: Cathay Pacific
 * Taiwan: China Airlines
 * China: China Cargo Airlines


 * China: China Southern Airlines Cargo
 * France: Corsairfly
 * United States: Delta Air Lines
 * Germany: DHL
 * Israel: El Al
 * United Arab Emirates: Emirates SkyCargo
 * Taiwan: EVA Air
 * United States: Evergreen International Airlines
 * Indonesia: Garuda Indonesia
 * United Kingdom Global Supply Systems
 * China: Grandstar Cargo
 * United States: Kalitta Air
 * Kenya: Kenya Airways Cargo
 * Netherlands: KLM
 * South Korea: Korean Air
 * Indonesia: Lion Air
 * Germany: Lufthansa
 * Malaysia: Malaysia Airlines
 * Iran: Mahan Air
 * Netherlands: Martinair Cargo
 * Turkey: MyCargo


 * Japan: Nippon Cargo Airlines
 * Thailand: Orient Thai Airlines
 * Philippines: Philippine Airlines
 * United States: Polar Air Cargo
 * Spain: Pullmantur Air
 * Australia: Qantas
 * Morocco: Royal Air Maroc
 * Saudi Arabia: Saudi Arabian Airlines
 * Singapore: Singapore Airlines Cargo
 * Angola: SonAir
 * United States: Southern Air
 * Thailand: Thai Airways International
 * Belgium: TNT Airways
 * Russia: Transaero
 * United States: United Airlines
 * United States: UPS Airlines
 * United Kingdom: Virgin Atlantic Airways
 * United States: World Airways
 * China: Yangtze River Express

Other non-airline users

 * United Arab Emirates: Abu Dhabi Flight
 * BHR: Bahrain Amiri Flight]]
 * United Arab Emirates: Dubai Air Wing
 * Brunei: Government of Brunei
 * Iraq: Government of Iraq
 * Kuwait: Government of Kuwait (Kuwait Airways livery)


 * Saudi Arabia: Government of Saudi Arabia (Saudi Arabian Airlines livery)
 * Japan: Japan Air Self-Defense Force
 * Saudi Arabia: Kingdom Holding
 * South Korea: Republic of Korea Air Force
 * Oman: Royal Flight of Oman

Incidents and accidents
The first hull loss of a 747-400 occurred on November 4, 1993 when China Airlines Flight 605, flying from Taipei to Hong Kong Kai Tak Airport, touched down more than 2,100 feet (640 m) past the runway's displaced threshold during 20 knot (gusting 38) crosswinds. Combined with the disengagement of auto brakes and retracted speed brakes, manual braking and thrust reversal were not enough to prevent the aircraft from sliding into Victoria Harbour. No one was seriously injured, but the aircraft was written off. The type's second hull loss occurred on October 31, 2000, when Singapore Airlines Flight 006, a 747-400 flying on a Singapore to Los Angeles route via Taipei, rammed into construction equipment while attempting to take off from a closed runway at Chiang Kai-shek International Airport. The aircraft caught fire and was destroyed, killing 79 passengers and four crew members. The cause was attributed to the flight crew navigating to the wrong runway.

The 747-400F has recorded two hull-loss accidents. On September 3, 2010, UPS Airlines Flight 6 from Dubai International Airport to Cologne Bonn Airport, a 747-400F with two crew members on board, crashed roughly 25 minutes after departure. The crew declared an emergency, apparently due to an in-flight fire, and after abandoning one attempt at landing were unable to see their instruments. The aircraft impacted with the ground at high speed, killing both crew members. On July 28, 2011, Asiana Airlines Flight 991, a Boeing 747-400F flying from Incheon Airport to Shanghai Pudong Airport, crashed into the Pacific Ocean off Jeju Island, South Korea, after reportedly suffering mechanical problems due to a possible on-board fire. Two crew members on board were killed.

Other incidents involving the 747-400 did not result in irreparable aircraft damage. On July 23, 1999, a man killed the pilot of All Nippon Airways Flight 61, a 747-400D bound for New Chitose Airport near Sapporo, Hokkaidō from Tokyo International Airport (Haneda), during an attempted hijacking, and was restrained by other crew members; the aircraft landed safely. On September 23, 1999, Qantas Flight 1, flying from Sydney to London via Bangkok, overran the runway after touching down more than 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) from the threshold during a storm with heavy rain, resulting in aircraft damage and minor passenger injuries. On January 31, 2001, the pilot of Japan Airlines Flight 907, a 747-400D bound for Naha International Airport from Tokyo International Airport, made an emergency dive, narrowly avoiding a collision with a Japan Airlines DC-10. On July 25, 2008, Qantas Flight 30, traveling from Melbourne Airport from Hong Kong International Airport, made an emergency landing at Ninoy Aquino International Airport in Manila, Philippines with a gaping hole in its lower forward fuselage; no one was hurt, and authorities determined that an exploding emergency oxygen supply bottle was the most likely cause.

Specifications
Sources: 747-400 specifications, 747-400/-400ER airport report, Gilchrist